Maritime training

For centuries, seafarers learned their trade by going to sea.  They began as young as 12 or 23 and learned by copying their elders and trying to do what they were told.  In time, they picked up enough knowledge to become competent seafarers in their turn.  By the 18^th and 19^th centuries training had become more formalised and many seafarers – especially those wanting to become officers – spent some time at training establishments on shore.  These were sometimes operated by governments, sometimes by the industry and sometimes by individual shipping companies.  But by the second half of the 20^th century it was recognized that something more was need.  The shipping world had become more international than ever and there was concern in some cases standards in some merchant marines were not as high as they should be.  This was important not only from the safety point of view, but also because training was expensive.  Shipowners who could avoid the cost of training their crews would have an advantage over their competitors.

WMU Trainees after a ship-handling stimulator training at ISSUS-SUSAN, Germany.

In 1959, the International Maritime Organization came into being.  It first major act was to convene the International Conference on the Safety of Life at Sea in 1960.  One of the many resolutions adopted was one which called upon Governments to take all practicable steps to ensure that the education and training of seafarers in the use of aids to navigation, ships' equipment and devices was sufficiently comprehensive and was kept satisfactorily up to date.  It also recommended that IMO and the International Labour Organisation should co-operate with each other and with interested Governments in achieving these ends.

In response to this recommendation, the Governing Body of ILO and IMO's Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) established a Joint Committee on Training.  This Committee had its first meeting in 1964 and prepared the Document for Guidance 1964.  This Document gave guidance on the education and training of masters, officers and seamen in the use and operation of aids to navigation, life-saving appliances, devices for the prevention, detection and extinction of fires, and other ship's equipment contributing to safety at sea.

The Document was subsequently amended, expanded and supplemented by the Joint Committee in 1975, 1977 and 1985.  Despite the success of this Document, the IMO Council in 1971 decided that still further measures were needed to strengthen and improve standards and it requested the MSC to give urgent consideration to international standards of watchkeeping, training and certification.

The IMO Assembly, which also met in 1971, decided to convene a conference to adopt a convention on the subject.  Preparatory work was carried out by the IMO Sub-Committee on Standards of Training and Watchkeeping, which prepared the text of a draft convention, an annex containing requirements for watchkeeping, training and certification and a number of draft recommendations.

The 1978 STCW Convention

The conference met in 1978 and was attended by delegates from 72 countries.  It was the largest conference ever held by IMO up to that time and the Convention which resulted was regarded as one of the most important maritime safety conventions ever developed.

The Convention was the first attempt to establish global minimum professional standards for seafarers.  Previously the standards of training, certification and watchkeeping of officers and ratings were established by individual governments, usually without reference to practices in other countries.  As a result standards and procedures varied widely, even though shipping is the most international of all industries.

The Convention prescribes minimum standards which countries are obliged to meet or exceed.  In the majority of established maritime countries, standards are often higher than those stipulated in the Convention.  In some countries, however, standards are not so high and by ratifying or accepting the Convention Governments undertake to implement and enforce its requirements.  The effect of the Convention's entry into force was therefore to raise standards in the world as a whole.

The Convention did not deal with manning levels: IMO provisions in this area are covered by regulation 13 of chapter V of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, whose requirements are backed up by resolution A.890 (21) Principles of safe manning, adopted by the IMO Assembly in 1999, which replaced an earlier resolution A.481 (XII) adopted in 1981.

The Convention entered into force on 28 April 1984.  The Convention has been accepted by 144 States with fleets aggregating 98.45% of the world merchant shipping tonnage.

When the Convention entered into force, it was expected that its requirements would ensure the competence of masters, officers and ratings of all seagoing ships and their safe operation through efficient watchkeeping.  As with all IMO Conventions it reflected the highest practicable standards that could be globally agreed at the time of its adoption.  But despite its broad global acceptance, it was realized by the late eighties that the Convention was not achieving its purpose.  Instead it was gradually losing credibility as its acceptance widened.  The main cause for this appeared to be the general lack of precision in its standards, the interpretation of which was left "to the satisfaction of the Administration".  This resulted in widely varying interpretation of standards and many Parties failed to effectively administer and enforce Convention requirements.  STCW certificates could no longer be relied upon as evidence of competence.

Other factors had reduced the effectiveness of the 1978 Convention such as the reliance placed on seafaring skills and competence being acquired through service on board ship or in machine shops.  The Convention had prescribed minimum periods of seagoing or other appropriate service and specified knowledge requirements without defining the skills and competence required.  Crew reductions, faster turn-rounds, more frequent crew changes and the mix of differing education and training backgrounds resulting from multinational manning, undermined the effectiveness of this on-board training.

Since the development of the Convention in the 1970s, many changes had taken place in the structure of the world merchant fleet and in the management and manning of ships.  Emerging economies had acquired greater maritime expertise and expanded their fleets.  The fleets of traditional maritime countries had declined and the major sources of supply of seafarers had also shifted.

In response to these changes IMO technical co-operation projects had strengthened the maritime administrations and maritime education and training capabilities of developing countries, by improving their facilities and equipment and enhancing their expertise by training their administrators and educators at the World Maritime University in Malmö, Sweden.

The traditional organization of duties and responsibilities on board ship was also changing.  Some felt that management response to emerging safety, efficiency and career development needs and expectations had become hampered by the traditional departmental structure upon which the 1978 Convention had been exclusively based.  Within the industry, the need for greater flexibility in the training and certification of seafarers became a significant force in the demand for change.

The loss of credibility of the Convention and political and public concern regarding human related causes of shipping disasters, generated growing criticism not only of the Convention itself but also of IMO, which some claimed to be ineffective and unresponsive to the safety needs of the travelling public and the protection of the marine environment from accidental pollution.

A limited review of Convention provisions was already in hand, when the Maritime Safety Committee decided, in May 1993, to give high priority to its comprehensive review.  On the suggestion of Mr. William A. O'Neil, the Secretary-General of IMO, the comprehensive review was accelerated by having consultants prepare a revised text under the direction of the Sub-Committee on Standards of Training and Watchkeeping (STW).  The original date for completing the revision at sub-committee level was 1996, meaning that the revision conference would probably not have been held until 1998. Under the accelerated programme the conference was brought forward to June-July 1995.

The use of consultants and four sessions of an Inter-Sessional Working Group of the STW Sub-Committee allowed basic texts to be approved by IMO and circulated for the 1995 Diplomatic Conference within a two year period. 

Organizations in consultative status, including the International Shipping Federation and the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions^[1] also contributed to the work as did the Arab Maritime Transport Academy, Dalian Maritime University, the National Maritime Academy of Singapore, Singapore Polytechnic and the World Maritime University.  The ease of acceptance of the basic text by the Conference in June/July 1995 reflected the quality of the preparatory work.

The main aims of the revision were:

1.	to transfer all detailed technical requirements to an associated Code
2.	to clarify the skills and competence required
3.	to require Administrations to maintain direct control over and endorse the qualifications of those masters, officers and radio personnel they authorize to serve on their ships
4.	to make Parties to the Convention accountable to each other, through IMO, for their proper implementation of the Convention and the quality of their training and certification activities
5.	to have the amendments enter into force for all Parties to the Convention with the least possible delay.

The 1995 amendments

For procedural reasons, it was decided not to amend the articles of the Convention.  This can only be done by the "positive acceptance" procedure, meaning that any amendments adopted would require the acceptance of two-thirds of Parties before entering into force, a process which would have taken many years.  By concentrating simply on the technical annex, it was possible to make use of the Convention's "tacit acceptance" provisions, under which amendments adopted by the Conference can enter into force within a minimum of one year (and a maximum of two years) unless they are rejected in the meantime by sufficient Parties^[2].

The amendments entered into force under this procedure on 1 February 1997.  Until 1 February 2002, however, Parties could continue to issue, recognize and endorse certificates which applied before that date in respect of seafarers who began training or seagoing service before 1 August 1998.

The articles

The articles (which, as was explained above were unchanged by the 1995 amendments) contain the legal provisions of the Convention while the technical content is incorporated in the annex.  The articles deal with entry into force provisions, amendment procedures, denunciation and various other matters.

One especially important feature of the Convention is that it applies to ships of non-party States when visiting ports of States which are Parties to the Convention.  Article X requires Parties to apply the control measures to ships of all flags to the extent necessary to ensure that no more favourable treatment is given to ships entitled to fly the flag of a State which is not a Party than is given to ships entitled to fly the flag of a State that is a Party.  The difficulties which could arise for ships of States which are not Parties to the Convention is one reason why the Convention has received such wide acceptance.

Certificates, each authorizing the holder to serve in a stated capacity, are the basic control provision of the Convention and article VI requires that they be issued only to those who meet the requirements of the Convention.  Article X states that ships (with some exceptions, such as warships and fishing vessels) are subject, while in the ports of a Party, to control by officers duly authorized to verify that personnel on board hold the required certificates. Deficiencies are required to be reported to the master and to the authorities of the flag State.  If the deficiencies are such that they are judged to pose a 'danger to persons, property or the environment, the Party carrying out the control shall take steps to ensure that the ship will not sail unless and until the Convention requirements are met to the extent that the danger has been removed.'

Although one aim of the Convention is that in future all certificates shall ultimately be issued in accordance with its requirements, the need for transitional provisions is recognized in article VII.  It states that certificates issued before entry into force of the Convention for a Party shall remain valid, no matter what the standards may have been.  After the entry into force of the Convention for a Party, its Administration may continue to issue certificates of competence in accordance with its previous practices for a period not exceeding five years.  This provision will enable the requirements of certificates to be updated in line with technical and other changes.

Article VIII describes how, in circumstances of exceptional necessity, dispensations may be granted to enable seafarers to serve in capacities for which they do not hold appropriate certificates, but no such dispensation is permitted in the case of a radio officer or operator.

The Convention also incorporates in article XII a 'tacit acceptance' procedure similar to that included in the 1974 SOLAS Convention.  Under this procedure amendments to the STCW Convention or its annex may be adopted by IMO's Maritime Safety Committee, expanded to include all Contracting Parties, some of whom may not be members of the Organization.  Amendments to the STCW annex will normally enter into force one and a half years after being communicated to all Parties unless, in the meantime, they are rejected by one-third of the Parties or by Parties whose combined fleets represent 50 per cent of world tonnage.Article XI of the Convention deals with technical co-operation and it requires Parties to promote support for Parties which request technical assistance in such matters as training.

The regulations and the STCW Code

One of the major features of the revision is the adoption of a new STCW Code, to which many technical regulations have been transferred.  Part A of the Code is mandatory while Part B is recommended.  Dividing the regulations up in this way makes administration easier and it will also make the task of revising and updating them more simple: for procedural and legal reasons there is no need to call a full conference to make changes to Codes.

Another important change means that for the first time IMO itself was given some authority over individual Parties. Under Chapter I, regulation I/ 7 Parties were required to provide detailed information to IMO concerning administrative measures taken to ensure compliance with the Convention, education and training courses, certification procedures and other factors relevant to implementation.

This information would then be used by the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC), IMO's senior technical body, to identify Parties that are able to demonstrate that they can give full and complete effect to the Convention.

This regulation was regarded as particularly important because it meant that Governments would have to establish that they had the administrative, training and certification resources necessary to implement the Convention.  No such proof was required in the original Convention (or in any other IMO instrument), leading to complaints that standards differed widely from country to country and certificates could therefore not always be relied on.

The regulation was backed up by section A-I/7 of the STCW Code which requires the information to be submitted to IMO by 1 August 1998.  Section A-I/7 also required the Secretary-General to maintain a list of competent persons approved by the MSC who may be called upon to assist in the preparation of the report required by regulation I/ 7.  Meetings of those on the list may be held at the discretion of the Secretary-General and their views shall be taken into account in the report submitted to the MSC.

Regulation I/8 of the Convention required a quality standards system to be used where training, assessment of competence, certification, endorsement and revalidation activities are carried out.  Further provisions covering this point are contained in Section A-I/8 of the Code.

Other important amendments to Chapter I (General Provisions) included the following:

•     Enhanced procedures concerning the exercise of port State control under Article X of the Convention have been developed to allow the competence of seafarers in carrying out watchkeeping to be assessed and to permit intervention in the case of deficiencies deemed to pose a danger to persons, property or the environment (regulation I/4).  This can take place if certificates are not in order or if the ship is involved in a collision or grounding, if there is an illegal discharge of substances (causing pollution) or if the ship is manoeuvred in an erratic or unsafe manner, etc.

•     Parties are required to establish procedures for investigating acts by persons to whom they have issued certificates that endanger safety or the environment.. Penalties and other disciplinary measures must be prescribed and enforced where the Convention is not complied with.

•    Technical innovations, such as the use of simulators for training and assessment purposes have been recognized. Simulators will become mandatory for training in the use of radar and automatic radar plotting aids. Parties will be required to ensure that training, certification and other procedures are continuously monitored by means of a quality assurance system (regulation I/8).

•    Every master, officer and radio operator shall be required at intervals not exceeding five years to meet the fitness standards and the levels of professional competence contained in Section A-I/11 of the STCW Code.  In order to assess the need for revalidation of certificates after 1 February 2002, Parties must compare the standards of competence previously required with those specified in the appropriate certificate in part A of the STCW Code. If necessary, the holders of certificates may be required to undergo training of refresher courses (regulation I/11).

•   Provisions covering the use of simulators, in particular radar and automatic radar plotting aids equipment are contained in regulation I/12 (and section A-I/12 of the STCW Code). Other chapters are the following:

Chapter II: Master and deck department

Chapter III: Engine department

Chapter IV: Radio communication and radio personnel

 

Chapter V: Special training requirements for personnel on certain types of ships.  Special requirements have been introduced concerning the training and qualifications of personnel on board ro-ro passenger ships.  Previously the only special requirements in the Convention concerned crews on tankers.  This change was made in response to proposals made by the Panel of Experts set up to look into ro-ro safety following the capsize and sinking of the ferry Estonia in September 1994.  Crews on ro-ro ferries will have to receive training in technical aspects and also in crowd and crisis management and human behaviour.

Chapter VI: Emergency, occupational safety, medical care and survival functions.

 

Chapter VII:  Alternative certification. Regulations regarding alternative certification (also known as the functional approach) have been included in a new Chapter VII. This involves enabling crews to gain training and certification in various departments of seafaring rather than being confined to one branch (such as deck or engine room) for their entire career.  Although it is a relatively new concept, the Conference was anxious not to prevent its development. At the same time, the new Chapter is intended to ensure that safety and the environment are not threatened in any way.  The use of equivalent educational and training arrangements is permitted under article IX.

Chapter VIII: Watchkeeping.  Measures have been introduced for watchkeeping personnel to prevent fatigue.  Administrations are required to establish and enforce rest periods for watchkeeping personnel and to ensure that watch systems are so arranged that the efficiency of watchkeeping personnel is not impaired by fatigue.

The STCW Code

The regulations contained in the Convention are supported by sections in the STCW Code.  Generally speaking, the Convention contains basic requirements which are then enlarged upon and explained in the Code.

Part A of the Code is mandatory. The minimum standards of competence required for seagoing personnel are given in detail in a series of tables. Chapter II of the Code, for example, deals with standards regarding the master and deck department. An extract is given on the next page.

Part B of the Code contains recommended guidance which is intended to help Parties implement the Convention. The measures suggested are not mandatory and the examples given are only intended to illustrate how certain Convention requirements may be complied with. However, the recommendations in general represent an approach that has been harmonized by discussions within IMO and consultation with other international organizations.

Resolutions

One of the resolutions adopted by the Conference recognizes the importance of education, training and appropriate experience for all seafarers. It also recognizes that "in some cases, there may be limited facilities for obtaining the required experience and providing specialized training programmes, particularly in developing countries."

It says that "the promotion of technical co-operation at an inter-governmental level will assist those States not yet having adequate expertise or facilities for providing such training and experience to implement the revised STCW Convention requirements."

The resolution "strongly urges Parties to provide, or arrange to provide, in co-operation with IMO, assistance to those States which have difficulty in meeting the improved requirements of the STCW Convention and which request such assistance."

Another resolution recognizes the contribution made by the World Maritime University in raising standards and notes that it can help deal with the need for personnel in the international maritime field by "assuming a leading role for the transfer of maritime education and knowledge through its activities and the networking of advanced maritime training establishments."

In a further resolution, IMO itself is called upon to revise and update the model training courses that have been developed over the years to provide core curricula for use in maritime academies and similar institutions. Other resolutions adopted by the Conference dealt with:

•    training in crisis management and human behaviour for personnel on board ro-ro passenger ships and training of personnel on passenger ships;

•    monitoring the implications of alternative certification;

•    development of international standards of medical fitness for seafarers; and

•    promotion of the participation of women in the maritime industry.

 

International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Fishing Vessel Personnel (STCW-F)

While the amendments to the STCW Convention were being considered, a separate conference running concurrently adopted a new International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Fishing Vessel Personnel (STCW-F).  Because of the nature of the fishing industry, it is extremely difficult to develop regulations for other sections of the shipping industry, which can be applied without modification to fishing vessels as well.  The Convention will apply to crews of seagoing fishing vessels, generally of 24 metres in length and above.  Delegates from 74 countries attended the Conference.

It was originally intended that requirements for crews on fishing vessels should be developed as a Protocol to the main STCW Convention, but after careful consideration it was agreed that it would be better to adopt a completely separate Convention.  The Convention was the first attempt to make standards of safety for crews of fishing vessels mandatory. 

The STCW-F Convention is comparatively short and consists of 16 Articles and several chapters contained in an annex. Chapter I contains General Provisions and Chapter II deals with Certification of Skippers, Officers, Engineer Officers and Radio Operators.

Previously efforts to improve the training, certification and watchkeeping standards of fishing vessels' personnel had been adopted as recommendations in Assembly resolutions and the Document for Guidance on Fishermens' Training and Certification produced jointly by IMO and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the International Labour Organisation (ILO).

The Convention will enter into force 12 months after being accepted by 15 States, but by 2001 it had only been accepted by 2 States.

The 1978 Convention

 

Although the 1995 amendments represent a complete re-write of the technical aspects of the STCW Convention, the original 1978 text will continue to apply to many of the world's ships and seafarers until the year 2002.  It contains six chapters as follows.

 

Chapter I:  General provisions

This starts with a list of definitions of terms used in the annex.  In some parts of the annex, relaxations in the requirements are provided for seafarers on ships engaged on near-coastal voyages; that is to say voyages in the vicinity of a Party as defined by that Party. 

Principles governing near-coastal voyages are set out in regulation I/3 Regulation 1/4 deals with control procedures and elaborates on article X.  Control is limited to checking the certificates of personnel and assessing the ability of seafarers to maintain convention standards in certain eventualities, such as the ship's involvement in a collision or grounding, the discharge of an illegal substance or erratic or unsafe manoeuvring.

Failure of seafarers to hold a certificate required by the Convention, to have an appropriate valid certificate or valid dispensation, would, if not corrected, result in the Party carrying out the control having to take steps to ensure that the ship will not sail unless and until these requirements are met to the extent that the danger has been removed.

However, certificates must be accepted unless there are clear grounds for believing a certificate has been fraudulently obtained or that the holder is not the person to whom it was issued.  The officer carrying out the control is also required to give written notification of the grounds on which it has been determined that any deficiencies found pose a danger to persons, property or the environment. These procedures permit the flag State Administration to take appropriate corrective action through the Party carrying out the control or by sending their own surveyor or representative to the port concerned.

If the deficiency, the existence of which has been clearly established by the control officer, is not corrected by the master, owner or Administration concerned, and such deficiency poses a danger to persons, property or the environment, the Party carrying out the control is required to take steps to ensure that the ship will not sail.  However, paragraph (4) of article X requires all possible efforts to be made to avoid unduly detaining or delaying the ship.  This is a more onerous requirement than having to make all practical efforts or best efforts.  A Party exercising control thus has to ensure that all necessary officials are accessible at all times and that all necessary communications can be passed without delay.

Chapter II:  Master-deck department

The chapter establishes the basic principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch, covering such matters as watch arrangements, fitness for duty,navigation, navigational equipment, navigational duties and responsibilities, the duties of the look-out, navigation with a pilot on board ('...his presence on board does not relieve the master or officer in charge of the watch from their duties...'), and protection of the marine environment.

Regulation II/2 establishes mandatory minimum requirements for certificating masters and chief mates of ships of 200 gross tons to 1,600 gross tons and for ships of 1,600 gt and more.  Candidates must meet the requirements for certification as an officer in charge of a navigational watch on ships of 200 gt or more and have approved sea-going service in that capacity.

Candidates must also have passed an appropriate examination covering not only navigational aspects and ship-handling but ship stability, construction and damage control; power plants; cargo handling and stowage; fire prevention; medical care; maritime law (including SOLAS and other IMO conventions); personnel management and training; communications; life-saving; search and rescue; and methods for demonstrating proficiency.  The examination may be varied for officers and masters of ships engaged on near-coastal voyages.

Regulation II/3 sets out mandatory minimum requirements for certification of officers in charge of a navigational watch and masters of ships of less than 200 gt.

           
In an era when technology and other factors are changing rapidly, it is necessary that masters and officers keep up to date.  This aspect is covered in regulation II/5.  Officers and masters are required at regular intervals not exceeding five years to satisfy their Administration as to their fitness and professional competence.

Requirements for deck ratings forming part of a navigational watch form the subject matter of regulation II/6.  Ratings who comply with this regulation must be not less than 16 years old.  They should have completed at least six months' sea-going service or undergone special training in a prescribed number of subjects.  Service of at least one year during the five years prior to the entry into force of the Convention for their Administration may be regarded as equivalent.

The last two regulations in this chapter deal with basic principles to be observed in keeping watch in port and mandatory minimum requirements for a watch in port on ships carrying hazardous cargo.

Chapter III:  Engine department

This follows a similar format to Chapter II and begins with a regulation which outlines basic principles to be observed in keeping an engineering watch. While requirements for deck officers vary according to the tonnage of the ship, for engineer officers the determining factor is the power of the engine.

Regulation III/2 for example deals with mandatory minimum requirements for certification of chief engineer officers and second engineer officers of ships powered by main propulsion machinery of 3,000 kW propulsion power or more.

Regulation III/3 contains similar requirements for ships with main propulsion machinery between 750 kW and 3,000 kW.  The chief difference between this and the previous regulation is that the requirement for previous service for candidates as chief engineers is reduced from 36 months to 24. Officers qualified to serve as second engineers on ships of 3,000 kW or more may serve as chief engineers of ships of lesser power, provided that not less than 12 months' approved sea-going service shall have been served as an engineer officer in a position of responsibility.

Regulation III/4 contains mandatory minimum requirements for certification of engineer officers in charge of a watch in a traditionally manned engine room or designated duty officers in a periodically unmanned engine room.  The next regulation includes requirements to ensure the continued proficiency and updating of knowledge for engineer officers.

The final regulation in the chapter (III/6) contains mandatory minimum requirements for ratings forming part of an engine room watch.  The minimum age permitted is 16.  Although the regulations in this chapter are not based on earlier resolutions of the IMO Assembly (unlike those in Chapter II) they reflect standard 'good practice'.  So far they have not caused any difficulties with regard to implementation.

Chapter IV:  Radio department

An explanatory note points out that mandatory provisions relating to radio watchkeeping are set forth in the ITU Radio Regulations and safety radio watchkeeping and maintenance provisions are included in the same regulations and in SOLAS.

Chapter V:  Special requirements for tankers

The importance of tankers in world shipping today is recognized by the inclusion of this chapter.  Its intention is to ensure that officers and ratings who are to have specific duties related to the cargo and cargo equipment of tankers shall have completed an appropriate shore-based fire-fighting course; and have completed either an appropriate period of shipboard service or an approved familiarization course. 

Chapter VI:  Proficiency in survival craft

This chapter establishes requirements governing the issuing of certificates of proficiency in survival craft.  These include approved sea-going service of not less than 12 months, or nine months if the candidate has attended an approved training course. 

Resolutions adopted by the conference

In some regulations of the Convention the language is fairly general, with much detail being incorporated in resolutions adopted by the conference.  Resolution 1, for example, is related to regulation II/I (basic principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch).  An annex contains a recommendation on operational guidance for officers in charge of a navigational watch.

A resolution is not, of course, a mandatory instrument.  A Government can use it in any way it sees fit, in whole, in part - or not at all.  For this reason, therefore, resolutions are not as important as conventions, whose observance is mandatory on all Contracting Parties.  Nevertheless, the resolutions adopted by the STCW Conference are mostly closely linked to the Convention and are designed to back up the Convention itself.

The conference adopted a total of 22 other resolutions. Following the entry into force of the amended Convention two sets of amendments were adopted.

The 1991 amendments

Adoption: 22 May 1991

Entry into force: 1 December 1992

The amendments are mostly concerned with the additional requirements made necessary by the implementation of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS), which was phased in between 1 February 1992 and 1 February 1999.

The 1994 amendments

Adoption: 25 May 1994

Entry into force: 1 January 1996

The amendments replaced the existing Chapter V, which deals with special training for crews on tankers, with a new text. While the adoption and entry into force of the revised STCW Convention were both important, there was a general recognition within the shipping industry that everything really depended on whether or not Parties to the Convention met its requirements. Those that failed to do so could find themselves in a difficult position, since their own seafarers could find that their certificates were not recognized in other countries.  There was great interest, therefore, in the so-called "White List" of countries deemed to be giving "full and complete effect" to the revised STCW Convention.

This was finally published by IMO at the end of 2000.  The 73rd session of the Organization's Maritime Safety Committee (MSC), meeting from 27 November to 6 December 2000, formally endorsed the findings of a working group established to examine a report made by the Secretary-General to the MSC, which revealed that 71 countries and one Associate Member of IMO had met the criteria for inclusion on the list.

A position on the White List entitles other Parties to accept, in principle, that certificates issued by or on behalf of the parties on the list are in compliance with the Convention.  It is expected that ships flying flags of countries that are not on the White List will be increasingly targeted by Port State Control inspectors.  A Flag state Party that is on the White List may, as a matter of policy, elect not to accept seafarers with certificates issued by non White List countries for service on its ships. If it does accept such seafarers, they will be required by 1 February 2002 also to have an endorsement, issued by the flag state, to show that their certificate is recognized by the flag state.

 

By 1 February 2002, masters and officers should hold STCW 95 certificates or endorsements issued by the flag State.  Certificates issued and endorsed under the provisions of the 1978 STCW Convention will be valid until their expiry date.  It was stressed at the meeting that giving "full and complete effect" to the revised Convention may not be the same for all Parties.  Some may choose not to have any maritime training institutes at all and rely on recognition of certificates issued to seafarers by other states.  Similarly, some Parties may only provide a limited scope of training, such as for ratings only.  The fact that a Party is not listed on the White List does not invalidate certificates or endorsements issued by that Party.

Nothing in the STCW Convention prevents the employment of any seafarer who holds a valid certificate or endorsement issued by a Party to the Convention.  Nevertheless, the White List will become one of several criteria, including the inspection of facilities and procedures that can be applied in the selection of properly trained and qualified seafarers. Countries not initially included in the White List will be able to continue with the assessment process with a view to inclusion on the list at a later stage.  The publication of the list marks the end of the first stage of a ground-breaking verification procedure in which, for the first time, IMO has been given a direct role in the implementation of one of its instruments revised STCW Convention and the ISM Code, which takes full effect in 2002, are both aimed squarely at addressing human issues in shipping.  Although technical matters will retain their importance, improving the standards of seafarers is a vital part of the safety equation.

The Secretary-General, Mr. William A. O'Neil also said he believed the verification process pointed the way towards a new and expanded role for IMO in the future.  "The fact that the authority for assessing implementation of STCW 1995 was delegated to IMO by Member States," he said, "indicates that the will to give the Organization a greater role in implementation does exist."

It has been estimated that some 80 per cent of marine casualties are due in some part to human error. In setting out unambiguously which countries are meeting the latest standards and requirements, the White List marks a significant step forward in IMO's global effort to rid the world of sub-standard ships and shipping. For the first time, it provides an IMO "seal of approval" for countries that have properly implemented the provisions of a Convention.

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^[1]The ICFTU consultant was sponsored by the International Transportworkers Federation.

^[2] One third of Parties or Parties whose combined merchant fleets constitute not less than 50% of world tonnage.